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Persisk filosofi och världens tänkare

A gentle, clear guide — from ancient Persian wisdom to everyday fallacies and the key concepts of thought. Tap any card to open it right here.

Jämförelse: Avicenna och Aristoteles

Necessary Existence, the Unmoved Mover, the Proof of the Truthful, essence and existence, causality and the intellects

Ask the Philosophy Guide

Ask anything about philosophy — even a single word like "freedom", "death" or "truth". You'll get a deep answer in simple language, with examples.

Socratic Dialogue

A live voice conversation, like a phone call: you speak and a Socratic philosopher answers aloud — probing your assumptions, testing counterexamples and spotting fallacies, drawing on Socrates, Aristotle, Kant, Ibn Sina and Farabi.

Great Minds Council

Part One — The Great Schools of Philosophy

A calm, clear look at the main currents of thought in Persia and the Islamic world, plus two complementary world schools (Stoicism and Existentialism) — plain-spoken, jargon-free, for every seeker of truth.

Part Two — Fallacies & Sophistry

A fallacy is an argument that looks correct on the surface but is wrong underneath. Knowing the fallacies is a shield for thought. Each card explains one fallacy with a simple, everyday example.

Why does the mind fall into these traps?

  • Two modes of thinking: psychologists describe “dual processes” — System 1 is fast, automatic and intuitive; System 2 is slow, effortful and deliberate. Most fallacies slip through when System 1 answers and System 2 doesn’t check (Stanovich & West, 2000; Kahneman, 2011).
  • Mental shortcuts: Tversky and Kahneman (1974) showed we judge using heuristics such as representativeness and availability — usually useful, but producing predictable errors.
  • Confirmation bias: we look for evidence that supports what we already believe and notice less that contradicts it (Wason, 1960; Nickerson, 1998).
  • Attribute substitution: faced with a hard question, the mind quietly answers an easier one (Kahneman & Frederick, 2002).
  • Belief bias: how believable a conclusion is sways our judgement of whether the reasoning is logically valid (Evans et al., 1983).
  • A caution: some researchers (Hahn & Oaksford, 2007) show that many “fallacies” can be reasonable arguments in context; recognising a fallacy means asking the right question, not ending the conversation.
Forskningskällor
  • Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.research
  • Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131.research
  • Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665.research
  • Wason, P. C. (1960). On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12(3), 129–140.research
  • Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220.research
  • Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002). Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and Biases (pp. 49–81). Cambridge University Press.research
  • Evans, J. St. B. T., Barston, J. L., & Pollard, P. (1983). On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 11(3), 295–306.research
  • Hahn, U., & Oaksford, M. (2007). The rationality of informal argumentation: A Bayesian approach to reasoning fallacies. Psychological Review, 114(3), 704–732.research

Formal fallacies

Errors in the form or structure of an argument.

Fallacies of relevance

Reasons that are irrelevant to the actual question.

Fallacies of presumption

Hidden or unjustified assumptions.

Linguistic fallacies

Slips that arise from ambiguity in words and sentences.

Part Three — Key Concepts, Simply

Eight words we hear again and again in philosophy and mysticism — each explained briefly, clearly, and without jargon.

Part Four — Logic: Tidy Thinking

Logic is the art of correct thinking. Philosophy without logic is like traveling at night without a lamp. Here, we learn logic through a few simple, everyday examples.

Part Five — Two Shining Stars: Socrates & Aristotle

History has many brilliant philosophers. But two names shine with a special light that still glows today: Socrates, the teacher of questioning; and Aristotle, the architect of thought.

Utvald litteratur för vidare studier

Primary texts, translations and scholarly companions; Persian-language works are shown right-to-left.

Persian & Islamic Philosophy

  • Adamson, P., & Taylor, R. C. (Eds.) (2005). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.scholarly
  • Nasr, S. H., & Aminrazavi, M. (Eds.). An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia (5 vols.). I.B. Tauris.scholarly
  • Rahman, F. (1975). The Philosophy of Mullā Ṣadrā. SUNY Press.scholarly
  • Walbridge, J., & Ziai, H. (1999). Suhrawardī: The Philosophy of Illumination. Brigham Young University Press.primary
  • Boyce, M. (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge.scholarly
  • مطهری، مرتضی. آشنایی با علوم اسلامی (منطق، فلسفه). انتشارات صدرا.scholarly
  • سهروردی، حکمة الاشراق، ترجمه و شرح سید جعفر سجادی. انتشارات دانشگاه تهران.primary

Greek Philosophy

  • Cooper, J. M. (Ed.) (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett.primary
  • Barnes, J. (Ed.) (1984). The Complete Works of Aristotle. Princeton University Press.primary
  • Barnes, J. (Ed.) (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.scholarly
  • افلاطون، دوره‌ی آثار افلاطون، ترجمه‌ی محمدحسن لطفی و رضا کاویانی. خوارزمی.primary
  • کاپلستون، فردریک. تاریخ فلسفه، جلد اول: یونان و روم، ترجمه‌ی سید جلال‌الدین مجتبوی. انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی / سروش.scholarly

Stoicism

  • Inwood, B. (Ed.) (2003). The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press.scholarly
  • Long, A. A. (2002). Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life. Oxford University Press.scholarly
  • Hadot, P. (1998). The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Harvard University Press.scholarly

Existentialism

Logic & Fallacies

  • Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & Rodych, V. (2019). Introduction to Logic (15th ed.). Routledge.scholarly
  • Walton, D. (2008). Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.scholarly
  • Hamblin, C. L. (1970). Fallacies. Methuen.scholarly
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Fallacies”scholarly
  • خوانساری، محمد. منطق صوری. انتشارات آگاه.scholarly

Cognitive Science of Reasoning

  • Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.research
  • Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131.research
  • Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. (Eds.) (2002). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge University Press.research
  • Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220.research
  • Hahn, U., & Oaksford, M. (2007). The rationality of informal argumentation: A Bayesian approach to reasoning fallacies. Psychological Review, 114(3), 704–732.research
  • کانمن، دانیل. تفکر، سریع و کند (ترجمه‌ی فارسیِ Thinking, Fast and Slow؛ چند ترجمه موجود است).research
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